Alexander’s conquest of the mighty Persian Empire
Alexander the Great, tutored by the legendary philosopher Aristotle and son of Philip II of Macedon, the founder of the Hellenistic League, embarked on a hegemonic campaign to conquer the vast Persian Empire. His invasion, marked by strategic brilliance and personal valor, featured several decisive battles. Here, we explore four crucial battles: the Battle of the Granicus, the Battle of Issus, the Battle of Gaugamela, and the Battle of the Hyphasis.
Battle of the Granicus (334 BC)
The Battle of the Granicus was Alexander’s first major engagement against the Persians. Fought on the banks of the Granicus River in modern-day Turkey after crossing the Hellespont, this battle set the tone for his campaign. Alexander faced a sizable Persian army commanded by local satraps and Greek mercenaries. Despite advice to wait until dawn, Alexander initiated a night-time river crossing under heavy Persian attack. His bold leadership was critical in unsettling the Persian forces. During the battle, Alexander was nearly killed by two Persian nobles. One crushed his helmet, and Black Cleitus, son of Dropides, took the blow from the other noble, saving his life. The Macedonian phalanx, equipped with the sarissa (an 18-foot spear), overwhelmed the Persians. This victory showcased Alexander’s leadership and the effectiveness of the phalanx formation developed by his father, Philip II.
Battle of Issus (333 BC)
Following the victory at Granicus, Alexander continued his advance into Asia Minor, leading to the Battle of Issus. This battle marked Alexander’s first encounter with Darius III, the King of Kings. Taking place near the mouth of the Pinarus River, the narrow battlefield favored Alexander’s tactics. The Persian king attempted to cut off Alexander’s supply lines with a surprise march, but Alexander countermarched and engaged the Persians near the coastal plain of Issus. Leading the right wing, Alexander charged directly at Darius III, causing panic. Darius fled the battlefield, leading to a complete Persian rout. The victory at Issus not only decimated Persian forces but also resulted in the capture of Darius’ family, further demoralizing the Persian forces and solidifying Alexander’s reputation as an undefeatable general.
Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC)
The Battle of Gaugamela, considered Alexander’s greatest triumph, took place near the village of Gaugamela in modern-day Iraq. Facing Darius III, the Persian King again, Alexander’s forces were outnumbered but not outmatched. Alexander used an oblique formation to counter the Persian scythed chariots and superior numbers. A pretended retreat by Alexander’s cavalry lured Persian forces into a trap, allowing the Macedonian phalanx to penetrate the Persian center. As the center of the Persian army began to flee, it was Darius III himself who led the rout. This victory marked the end of the Darius III reign and solidified Alexander’s control over its vast territories.
Battle of the Hyphasis (326 BC)
While not against the Persians, the pivotal battle fought on the banks of the Hyphasis River (modern-day Jhelum River) against King Porus of Punjab demonstrated Alexander’s relentless pursuit of conquest and adaptability to new challenges. Similar to the Granicus, Alexander executed a daring night-time river crossing under challenging conditions to surprise Porus. Facing war elephants for the first time, Alexander’s troops adapted by targeting the mahouts (elephant drivers) and using their agility to outmaneuver the elephants. Although controversial, Alexander was able to secure victory by a narrow margin due to his tactical brilliance, despite facing tough resistance from Porus and his army. His respect for Porus’ bravery led to Porus being reinstated as the King.
Through every generation of the human race there has been a constant war, a war with fear. Those who have the courage to conquer it are made free and those who are conquered by it are made to suffer until they have the courage to defeat it, or death takes them. There is nothing impossible to him who will try. I would rather live a short life of glory than a long one of obscurity.
~ Alexander the Great
